The differences in ethical and Christian views concerning homosexuality Essay Example for Free

The differences in ethical and Christian views concerning homosexuality Essay Homosexuality is a subject, which is forever being raised in todays media and society. It is constantly brought to the attention of many to be somewhat reassessed in terms of ethical and religious view points, whether through the newspapers or the television. While religious view points used to manipulate society in all matters, it now seems to be the media which influences and guides social attitudes towards homosexuality. For many years, it has been seen as intrinsically wrong to everybody, religious and secular. However, it is fast becoming more and more accepted by a larger number of people. Just the mention of homosexuality in a Roman Catholic Church is bound to be frowned upon or combated with a quick fire of biblical references to show you that homosexuality is wrong in the eyes of God. Catholicism has often been blamed for the development of homophobia, particularly in the West. While this may seem a little unfair, it is most certainly true that homophobia is ubiquitous within this Christian denomination. Many Catholics often refer to what few references there are in the Bible to the subject of homosexuality. For example, the story of the town called Sodom (Gen. 19-21) is one of the most famous indications that people often refer to. Here, a man named Lot is greeted by two of Gods divine messengers, who wish to warn Lot that God is displeased with the terrible behavior. He then receives men at his door saying that they wish to commit sexual acts with these divine messengers and in response to this, God burns the town to the ground. Christians believe that this was because of the men wishing to commit homosexual acts. They feel that there is no necessary analysis of this story as the message is quite clear. Jack T. Chick is a publisher of fundamentalist Christian leaflets and comic books. In one of his childrens comic books, entitled Birds and Bees, he wrote, The worst city was Sodom. These Sodomites worshipped Satan, were possessed with devils and they hated God. Their stink reached heaven and God was fed up with them. He planned to destroy them to keep their filthy lifestyle from spreading. As soon as they got Lot and his family out of Sodom, God firebombed the cities and turned them into ashes. Today, those same kinds of people are back, but now theyre called Gays! This opinion is shared by many Christians today and is often the message, which is portrayed through Christian propaganda such as this. From looking at this sort of publication, it is easy to see why Catholics are so frequently blamed for the development of homophobia. However, many Catholics today argue that this was simply a misinterpretation of the biblical reference itself. John Macquarrie and James Childress wrote in the New Dictionary of Christian Ethics To the extent that the Sodom story focuses on homosexual acts, the judgment is on the homosexual rape of divine messengers, and its larger judgment appears to be against social injustice and inhospitality to strangers (see Ezek. 16:49-50). They clearly state that the passage in the bible is not about the homosexual acts themselves, but the wish to do it without consent, implying that homosexual acts are perfectly okay as long as they are with two compliant adults. Not only this, but God was displeased with how the men acted towards guests when they should have been hospitable in a more Christian and loving way. There are many other examples of homosexual references in the bible, such as the Levitical Holiness Code (Lev. 18:22; 20:13), which prescribes the death penalty for homosexual acts. The NT (New Testament) calls homosexual acts idolatry (Rom. 1:26-27) and suggests that certain homosexual activity will deny you entry into Gods Kingdom (1 Cor. 6:9-10, 1 Tim. 1:9-10) But yet again, Macquarrie and Childress argue the same thing. They wrote, The references in 1 Corinthians and 1 Timothy quite clearly take the sordid and dehumanizing dimensions of Greco-Roman pederasty as their image of homosexual relations. Macquarrie and Childress argue that the reference in 1 Corinthians and 1 Timothy are in reference to relations between men and boys and not in fact between two grown men. This changes the meaning entirely of the supposed reference to homosexuality, as we know very well that relations between men and boys is still found highly unacceptable and illegal even in todays society, not just in the religious circles. This is a highly different interpretation to what most Catholics would agree with, however, as times change many Catholics are actually considering these alternative interpretations to meet with the ever changing ethical views of society. There were many others to follow Macquarrie and Childress in re-interpreting the Bible and its rules on homosexuality. Many criticized Catholics for ignoring other rules that suited them but sticking to the rules about homosexuality because they didnt like the idea. In his book, Ethical Studies, David Bowie wrote The bible condemns hypocrisy and greed, but no one died at the stake in medieval times for these offences, while homosexuals perished. This view was shared by the likes of John Boswell (1982) and Gareth Moore (1992). Moore wrote, in his book The Body in Context: Sex and Catholicism (1992), that Christians dont follow the rule in Leviticus 19:19 that states that wearing garments that are made of two types of material is forbidden. He goes further to say that we ignore the laws, which are convenient to us while pursuing those that attack minorities that we dont like (pp. 184-186). He too agrees with the interpretation of the Sodom story, which states that God was troubled by the failure to meet the responsibility of hospitality, as oppose to disapproving homosexuality (p. 191). St. Paul wrote that homosexuality often comes from godless people who lead a precarious lifestyle. In 1 Corinthians he lists all kinds of unrighteous people including male prostitutes and sodomites. He says that people engaging in same sex actions are dishonoring their bodies. He also writes about men committing shameless acts with men. Moore also criticizes this idea from St. Paul. Moore argues that, whilst this may have been true in St. Pauls lifetime, it certainly isnt true now; with the fact there are many holy, Christian homosexuals around today who just want to be accepted. This doesnt fit into St. Pauls argument of godless homosexuals. While biblical references are very powerful to Catholics as Gods spoken word, there are also many modern day references that are used by Catholics such as the Declaration on Sexual Ethics (1975) which states In Sacred Scripture homosexual acts are condemned as a serious depravity and even presented as a sad consequence of rejecting God. This judgment of scripture does not, of course, permit us to conclude that all those who suffer from this anomaly are personally responsible for it, but it does attest to the fact that homosexual acts are intrinsically disordered and cannot be approved of. This seems to express the general view of conservative Catholics and provides another reason for practicing Catholics to be against homosexuality even if it is not entirely what they think. If it is written in something as serious as the Declaration on Sexual Ethics, people feel that they must follow it no matter what simply because they dont want to go against their religion. Disagreeing with this documentation would be opposing what the modern day Catholicism is requiring them to do and therefore many Catholics see it as intrinsically wrong to be homosexual, no matter what the reasons or circumstances. As well as actual textual references that say homosexuality is wrong, there are many other arguments that are always put forward by Catholics. Perhaps the most famous was that developed by Thomas Aquinas, called The Natural Law. This is the idea that sex is only for pro-creation, that is having children. He argues that this is why God gave us the sexual organs and using them for anything other than reproduction would be to misuse our bodies. Of course, this includes any form of homosexual activity and many Christians stick to this rule explicitly. This means, however, that some Christians find it perfectly acceptable to be homosexual but remain celibate throughout their entire lifetime. There are several Christian denominations that do find forms of homosexuality acceptable. Quakers say that homosexuality is no more deplorable than left-handedness and that it is the nature and quality of the relationship that matters. This means that as long as the relationship is a loving and caring relationship then it is perfectly acceptable no matter who is involved. This view is shared by the Methodist denomination of Christianity, which states that For homosexual men and women, permanent relationships characterized by love can be an appropriate and Christian way of expressing their sexuality. Many Christians believe that the most important teaching of Jesus was that you must love each other and treat each other how you would like to be treated. In this case, we must treat homosexuals with respect and not judge them for their way of living. We must show compassion for every human being, no matter what his or her race, creed or sexuality. While these religious views are still seen as highly acceptable, it is fast becoming the ethical views that are dominating the societys opinion of homosexuality. Due to the investigation into the cause of homosexuality, many people now believe that being a homosexual is something that you do not choose to be, something that you cannot change about yourself. The causes of homosexuality can often be split up into different categories; biological, psychoanalytical and social learning theories. And of course many doctors and psychologists seem to go for a combination of all three. However, despite the general consensus that we do not know the cause of homosexuality, there have been certain aspects of it that people agree on. For example, we know that it seems to become fixed in early childhood, usually by the age of seven. This is said to be not of the individuals own choice. Another agreement is that while efforts to change ones sexual practices may be successful, it will not change the sexual orientation of the individual and things such as feelings and desires. And finally, people agree upon the fact that most people are neither exclusively heterosexual nor homosexual but that they have leading predispositions towards either orientation. With these ethical considerations in mind, many people take these into deliberation when making judgments or decisions about homosexuality. People often question whether homosexuality actually is a moral issue. Not all Christians would find these biblical references useful or even relevant to the modern day debate as to whether homosexuality is right or wrong. We also have to consider the views of those who dont follow the Christian tradition at all. At which point does homosexuality become a moral problem for people in society? Surely sexual acts that occur between two consenting adults, homosexual or heterosexual, are perfectly okay in the privacy of their own homes. True, people shouldnt be exposed to things that they may find offensive in their opinion but it doesnt mean that they can stop other people from doing so. Of course there has been the issue of homosexuality in the law. What is legal is not necessarily the same as what is moral. Up until 1967, it was illegal to perform sexual acts at any time in any place. However, the 1967 Sexual Offences Act legalized homosexuality but many people still think it should be against the law. J.S. Mill claimed The only purpose for which power can be rightfully be exercised over any member of a civilized community against his will is to prevent harm to others. This opinion was shared by John Rawls who stated every person has a right to the maximum amount of liberty compatible with allowing liberty for all.(Ethics: Homosexuality by Reg Luhman p.20) This means that every individual, homosexual or heterosexual has the right to do whatever he or she want as long as it doesnt harm other people. He questions why people think they have the right to deny some human beings of their right to be homosexual and happy at the same time. However, Lord Devlin challenged this. He stated in his lecture on the reinforcement of morals, that homosexuality could damage our societys status and that allowing homosexuality to exist legally could jeopardize this. He believes that a society must do what it takes to preserve its own existence even if this means illegalizing homosexual acts in private between consenting adults. H.L.A. Hart criticized Devlin for this, drawing divisions between what is immoral and what is an upset to public civility. It brings attention to the fact that sexual acts between husband and wife would be seen as perfectly okay as long as it was in private but if it public then it would be considered immoral. However, sexual acts between two homosexuals would be considered immoral whether it was private or in public. He says The idea that we may punish offenders against a moral code, not to prevent harm or suffering or even repetition of the offence but simply as a means of venting or emphatically expressing moral condemnation, is uncomfortably close to human sacrifice as an expression of religious worship. The fact that humans can punish other humans for doing nothing but expressing their sexuality seems morally wrong in itself. To punish someone for something which they cannot help and did not choose is a far greater and unchristian way of dealing with the issue than allowing them to be homosexual in the privacy of their own homes etc. Joseph Fletcher argued that any of the 10 commandments or moral values could be broken if the circumstances required people to do so. He proposed the idea of situation ethics, which suggested that acts should be committed depending on what would be the most loving thing to do. The obvious problem with this is that we cannot know the outcome of any action and so we cannot determine what the most loving thing to do would be. But in the situation where two people love each other very much and feel that they must find a way to express their love, Fletcher would argue that they should be allowed to express it simply because they are acting out of love for each other and not causing any harm to anybody. With these considerations in mind, people still find homosexuality immorally wrong, whether theyre religious or not. Many people call it unnatural and against what man was made to do, so to speak. Natural would be to preserve the human race and of course, homosexual relationship do not do this. Charles Darwin proposed the idea of Naturalistic Humes Law which said that just because things are natural does not mean they are good and just because things are artificial or unnatural does not mean they are evil or bad. If we put this into modern day perspective we can see that, while homosexuality may be considered unnatural (which it may or may not be depending on ones opinion), it does not mean it is necessarily wrong. This seems to suggest that the question of whether homosexuality is natural or unnatural is irrelevant because that factor doesnt contribute to whether it is right or wrong, moral or immoral. In conclusion, it seems that there will probably always be an issue with homosexuality and religious groups until religious leaders are willing to see alternative interpretations of their sacred texts. However, it does seem that many people are beginning to accept homosexuality into society without the consideration of religion. The media has heavily influenced the acceptance of homosexuality as well as the legalizing of it in 1967. In a few years times, homophobia should be almost non-existent, excluding the religious groups who arent willing to change their views with the modern day times. We could argue forever which view is more right in terms or morals and religious aspects but in the end it depends entirely upon personal opinion and we cannot force people to be okay with something as controversial as this. Homophobia should be something, which will diminish given time. Bibliography Ethical Studies David Bowie (2001) Groundwork of Christian Ethics Richard G. Jones (1984) A New Dictionary of Christian Ethics Edited by John Macquarrie and James Childress (1986) Religious Studies Sarah K. Tyler and Gordon Reid (2002) On Liberty J.S. Mill (1859) The Body In Context: Sex and Catholicism- Gareth Moore (1992) Rediscovering Gay History: Archetypes of Gay Love in Christian History John Boswell (1982) Ethics: Homosexuality Reg Luhman (1999)

Qualitative Research on How We Know the City

Qualitative Research on How We Know the City How do we come to know the city? A city can be defined in a number of ways (Parr, 2007): firstly, in a physical sense of the territory it occupies (Smart, 1974); secondly, by its population size (Newling, 1996; Eeckhout, 2004); or alternatively, by the area dedicated to urban activities (Hall Hay, 1980). All of these interpretations of the meaning of a city have come about from different perceptions of certain cities, which can be researched using various qualitative methods. The qualitative methods that will be discussed in this essay include ethnography, participant observation, interviewing, and focus groups, arguing that a combination of approaches should be taken to reflect the dynamism of cities. Thus, this essay will examine how we come to know a city, taking a particular focus on Newcastle, located in North East England (Miles, 2005). The city is a taken-for-granted concept, frequently used unthinkingly in everyday life (Cloke et al., 2005). We live in an increasingly urbanised world (Hamnett, 2005), with 60% of the global population expected to be housed in cities by 2030 (United Nations (UN), 2016). However, trends of rapid suburbanisation and counter urbanisation have been witnessed since the 1980s, particularly in developed countries such as the UK, in which the city of Newcastle is located (Champion, 1989; Cheshire, 1995). In some cities, this suburbanisation is coupled with inner-city decline, subsequently followed by gentrification and city centre regeneration (Ley, 1996; Peach, 1996; Smith, 1996). Thus, contemporary cities are often characterised by growing inequalities, social segregation and socio-spatial unevenness (Hamnett, 2003; Knox Pinch, 2010). As Geographers, it is important to know how these cities are changing, both in terms of their economic foundation and social structure (Hamnett, 2005). Thi s can be done using qualitative research methods, which examine the ways in which different social groups visualise, feel and know the city, through a multitude of senses, rather than merely sight (Cloke et al., 2005). Therefore, a multiple-method approach is most desirable in order to know that there is more to a city than its physical existence and material construction (Elwood, 2010). Unlike quantitative research methods, qualitative methodologies do not begin with the presumption that there is a pre-existing world that can be known; instead, we see the world socially, as a construct that is constantly changing (Limb Dwyer, 2001). The emphasis, therefore, is to understand the meanings of everyday experiences of the cities (Limb Dwyer, 2001). Ethnographies are one of these such methods, which are characterised by in-depth approaches (Watson Till, 2010), rather than aiming to necessarily produce statistical data. This method involves living and working within a community to understand how people experience their everyday lives, and thus the city (Cook, 2010). Participant observation is a research method heavily emphasised by ethnography. It enables investigation into behaviours and socio-spatial interactions (Cloke et al., 2004) in a more natural setting, therefore producing more reliable responses as participants feel at ease (Western, 1992). Although this method does provide the researcher with a greater depth of understanding as they come to know the participants on a personal level, the research is based upon a very small sample size, which raises questions over to what extent reliable conclusions can be drawn (Limb Dwyer, 2001). Thus, it is important to use other methods, such as interviewing different groups of people, in order to overcome the temptation of generalising. Furthermore, it can be difficult for the researcher to detach themselves and remain an outside observer, as one becomes an intimate member of the group, often over a prolonged period (Chrisman, 1976). Overall, participant observation as a part of ethnographic resea rch produces tacit knowledge of peoples interactions with the city (Stake, 2005), thus aiding in explanation of how we come to know the city. Defined as a conversation with a purpose (Bingham Moore, 1966), semi-structured interviews are one of the most commonly used qualitative methods in social science research, and Human Geography in particular (Crang, 2002; Longhurst, 2003; Kvale, 2007). Despite often mistakenly being criticised for not being representative or scientific, as Valentine (2005) outlines, an interview enables the researcher to understand the mental world of individual people (McCracken, 1988), and how they experience and make sense of their own everyday lives, and thus, how they come to know the city. Interviewers tend to loosely base their questions on an interview schedule, which consists of memory prompts and key topics of discussion (Keats, 2000; Bryman 2004), however, this is often deviated from due to the fluid nature of this methodology (Limb Dwyer, 2001). Time consuming. Cultural and historical knowledge. Another qualitative research method that can be used to investigate how we come to know the city is focus groups. These usually consist of a one-off meeting among five to eight individuals (Limb Dwyer, 2001) where they are often presented with a set of small tasks, such as watching a short video (Goss, 1996). For the researcher, this is an efficient way of gaining an insight into the ways in which people come to know the city (Krueger Casey, 2015), by getting participants to share their personal experiences and argue for different points of view (Barbour Kitzinger, 1999). Rather than interviewing on an individual basis, which can create disproportional power relations (Smith, 2006), the focus group context shows the researcher how certain individuals interact with each other, allowing conversations to develop in arguably a more common social situation (Lunt Livingstone, 1996). However, if the group are not interested in the topic, it can be very difficult for the researcher to ge t the conversation to flow (Agar MacDonald, 1995). Furthermore, it is important to be aware of high dropout rates, and factor this in when planning research using this method (Limb Dwyer, 2001). For this reason, focus groups tend to be used in conjunction with other methodologies, such as interviewing, rather than as a stand-alone approach (Frey Fontana, 1993). Produces practical, context-dependent knowledge (Starman, 2013). Knowledge. Several misconceptions, such as that knowledge is only gained through observation of the world (Sayer, 1992). (Law, 2005). According to Sayer (1992), knowledge is in fact gained through a common language, interaction with other people, and the use of shared resources. Different types of knowledge are appropriate to different functions and contexts (Sayer, 1992). The city looks and feels different, depending on the perspectives of those inhabiting the space (Law, 2005). Dominant way of looking in Geography normalised as white, heterosexual male. (Rose, 1993; Rose, 1997). Excludes viewpoints of people from different races, sexualities, genders, and abilities (Law, 2005). Marginalisation of deaf and blind people, etc. in the city until the turn of the century (see Kitchen et al., 1997). These people are likely to have different experiences of the place. In terms of gender, women can find streets lined with trees intimidating at night as they reduce the visibility of being see n (Valentine, 1989). To others, it feels natural and seems aesthetically pleasing, particularly during the day. The city looks and feels, and is therefore known as, being different, depending on the perspectives of those inhabiting the urban space (Law, 2005). Mixed methods. Historically, Geography has been understood as a visual discipline. However, as Rodaway (1994) highlights, we come to know a city through a variety of senses: smell (Porteous, 1985), sound (Ingham, 1999; Smith, 2000), touch (Podock, 1993), taste. Cosgrove (1998) further recognises this in our association between the visual world and the production of reliable knowledge, with little consideration of other sense. If we rely only on vision as the best way of knowing a city, we, as Human Geographers, consequently only research the remarkable and elite landscapes (rather than the everyday) that are often theoretically only seen from above, rather than below (Law, 2005). If we mimic the position of urban planners in only seeing the city from above, we risk fixing its meaning, and thus denying its complexity (Law, 2005). Thus, it is important to take a multiple-methods approach in order to come to know the city through all of our senses In conclusion, this essay has argued that the city can become best known through a multiple-method qualitative research approach, incorporating a combination of ethnographies, participant observation, interviews and focus groups. It is important not to over-emphasis on visual sight, but also consider other, less-appreciated senses that contribute to our overall knowing of the city.

Heat Transfer Within A Jacketed Reactor System

Heat Transfer Within A Jacketed Reactor System Modeling of heat transfer within a jacketed reactor requires basic knowledge on process heat transfer; reactor design etc. literature review sum up the fundamental on energy balance, method of overall heat transfer coefficient determination and basic understanding of crystallization. These are the basic methods which allow engineers to predict more accurate capabilities during chemical process as well as timing on the process. Introduction Heat transfer is important in agitated vessels due to fluid temperature is the most significant factor for controlling the outcome of chemical, biochemical and pharmaceutical processes. [6] Jacketed agitated vessels for heating and cooling are commonly used in vary types of process applications. Engineers should have working knowledge of how heat transfer and temperature control principles applied to such vessels. Cooling or heating agitated liquid in vessels is a basic technological operation on the chemical, biochemical, pharmaceutical, food and processing industries. The cooling or heating rate depends on how the heat is supplied or removed, the mixing intensity and many other parameters. [5] The temperature needs to be controlled precisely at its desired to meet the requirement of downstream operations. Hence a mathematical model is essential which can predict temperatures accurately. The rate of heat transfer to or from an agitated liquid mass in a vessel is a function of the physical properties of that liquid and of the heating or cooling medium, the vessel geometry, and the degree of agitation. [8] Other factors which may affect the rate of heat transfer include type and size of the agitator and agitator location in the vessel. Most of the jacketed agitated vessels are used as reactor, thus chemical reactions with exothermic or endothermic effects must be taken into account as well. In a vessel containing an agitated liquid, heat transfer takes place mainly through conduction and forced convection, as it does in heat exchangers. [8] Crystallization is a unit operation for separation and production of pure solid materials with desired properties. To develop a batch cooling crystallization process, various operation strategies need to be investigated in relation to seeding, cooling, mixing, fines dissolution, and so forth. [18] In commercial scale process, the reactor size grows larger. In this situation, various problems like ancillary nucleation, attrition, breakage, agglomeration, and dead zone may become severer in relation to the increasing inhomogeneities in the solution temperature and hydrodynamics. Literature Review Modeling of reactors is useful for analyzing data, estimating performance, reactor scale-up, simulating start-up and shut down behavior, and control. [12] Uncertainties such as scale-up options, explosion hazards, runaway reactions, environmental emissions, reactor internals etc, may be explored through modeling. [12] A key aspect of modeling is to derive the appropriate momentum, mass or energy conservation equations for the reactor. One typical application in heat transfer with batch operation is heating the process fluid in reactor, maintaining temperature during the reaction period and cooling the product after reaction complete. [11] Energy Balance The overall thermal energy balance includes the heat entering the system, heat leaving the system, heat accumulation and heat loss. The equation can be written as: In batch process, there is no liquid or fluid entering or leaving the system. If the system is assumed to be perfectly insulated, the energy balance equation can be simplified in: [7] By integration of both sides: For a batch manufacturing process, heat transfer in an agitated vessel is used to design a suitable process or reaction. It is necessary to calculate the time to heat or cool a batch or the cooling capacity required to hold an exothermic or endothermic reaction at constant temperature. [1] The technique is to develop an expression which is relating time for heating or cooling agitated batches to coil or jacket area, heat-transfer coefficient, and the heat capacity of the vessel contents. [11] By rearranging the energy balancing equation, the relevant equation to calculate time is as follow: This equation only can be used in where the utility fluid temperature remains constant or the fluid temperature difference between inlet and outlet is not greater than 10% of the log mean temperature difference between the average temperature of the jacket and the temperature of the vessels content. [8] Precisely, for heating and cooling condition, this equation must be represented in separately: For heating: For cooling If the situation is greater than 10% of the log mean temperature difference, the apply equation will be: W = the mass flow rate through the jacket, C = the specific heat of the fluid in the jacket K = Assumptions are made for solving energy balance equation [11] [17] U is constant for the process and over the entire surface Liquid flow rates are constant Specific heats are constant for the process The heating or cooling medium has a constant inlet temperature Agitation produces a uniform batch fluid temperature No partial phase changes occurs Heat losses are negligible Agitated vessel heat transfer coefficient Process side heat transfer coefficient can be determined by speed and agitator type. For low viscosity fluids, high-speed turbine type agitators will provide good performance. For high viscosity fluids and non-newtonian fluids, larger diameter agitators will be more suitable. [1] Various types of agitators are used for mixing and blending as well as to promote heat transfer in vessels. The correlations used to estimate the heat transfer coefficient to the vessel wall. [2] For agitated vessels: Where hv = heat transfer coefficient to vessel wall or coil, Wm-2à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã†â€™-1 D = agitator diameter, m N = agitator, speed, rps (revolutions per second) Ï  = liquid density, kg/m3 kf = liquid thermal conductivity, Wm-1à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã†â€™-1 Cp = liquid specific heat capacity, J Kg-1à ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã†â€™-1 ÃŽ ¼ = liquid viscosity, Nm-2s. The values of constant C and the indices a, b and c depend on the type of agitator the use of baffles, and whether the transfer is to the vessel wall or to coils. Some typical correlations are given below: [2] Flat blade disc turbine, baffled or unbaffled vessel, transfer to vessel wall, Re < 400: Flat blade disc turbine, baffled vessel, transfer to vessel wall, Re> 400: Overall heat transfer coefficient Most utility and process fluid will foul the heat transfer surfaces in an exchanger to a greater or lesser extent. The deposited material will normally have a relatively low thermal conductivity and will reduce the overall coefficient. Fouling factors usually are considered in determining the Overall heat transfer coefficient U. The overall heat transfer coefficient is calculated in this way: Where ÃŽ ± and ÃŽ ±s are the heat transfer coefficients for the process and utility side respectively. On the utility side, fouling resistance 1/ÃŽ ±f can be found from local experience or from Kern (1950). [1] Heat transfer utility fluid Syltherm 800 is a silicone heat transfer fluid. It is a highly stable, long-lasting silicone fluid designed for high temperature liquid phase operation. It exhibits low potential for fouling and can often remain in service for 10 years or more. The recommended using temperature range is. [15] Crystallization Crystallization occurs with generating a sufficient level of supersaturation. The method of generation of supersaturation is to provide heat transfer, which is used in cooling and evaporative crystallization processes. There are two essential steps for crystallization: nucleation and crystal growth. The problems of scale-up in crystallization process can be classified into induced, hydrodynamically induced, and mixes. For example, attrition, breakage, and agglomeration are related to solution mixing and are investigated from the hydrodynamic point of view. On the other hand, ancillary nucleation is caused by increased temperature gradient within the solution together with seed particles generated by attrition or fluid shear and can be considered as an example where the thermal and hydrodynamic effects are mixed. To improve the hydrodynamics deterioration during the scale-up, impeller type, agitation power, and baffle or draft tube design2,8,9 can be modified or newly designed as required. The thermal aspect improvement is performed by the heat transfer enhancement, but the remedies are limited because the heat transfer area to volume ratio decreases inevitably during the scale-up unless other techniques such as vacuum or evaporative crystallization is introduced. Methodology Calculation of time to heat or cool a fixed amount of liquid inside a batch reactor usually assume the process and utility heat capacity and the overall heat transfer coefficient to be constant throughout the calculations. Equations (liquid in jacket) heat input to reactor at T = heat loss by utility liquid with inlet temperature T1 and outlet temperature T2 Rearrange the equation to solve unknown jacket outlet temperature T2 The rate of temperature change of the liquid inside the vessel is given by Solving the above two equations to get process temperature as a function of time Finally, solving for time t where T = Tf Conclusion

Shelleys Frankenstein and Austens Mansfield Park as Vehicles for Social Comment :: comparison compare contrast essays

Shelley's Frankenstein and Austen's Mansfield Park as Vehicles for Social Comment It has been often noted that the Romantic writers of English literature were rebelling against the established positions and views of society. Most of the Romantic artists were indigenes of the well-established middle class and they were swiftly tiring of the self-serving political depredation perpetrated by the hands of the upper class. The Romantics were flouting convention, thumbing their noses and calling for radical and widespread reform not only in governmental politics, but within the politics of their own trade--creativity and art. Their myriad of works are clear evidence of this. Contumely against established society was found mostly in the poetical works of the day. However, much social commentary found its way into seemingly unlikely novels. Two such novels are Mary Shelly's Frankenstein and Jane Austen's Mansfield Park. Both of these novels are clever repositories for social commentary and judgment. The overwhelming social judgment by Austen and Shelly was an intolerance for class distinction. Though they were hardly deluded enough to posses Utopian ideals, they nevertheless felt that a society with very little class distinction and especially without class-specific opportunity and quality of life was indeed attainable. Given that Karl Marx formulated many of his socialist ideals as a result of his exposure to the conditions of working class Englishmen, one might venture to say that the Romantic artists were forerunners of the socialist ideal, though perhaps this is a stretch. However, neither Austen nor Shelly saw socialism as an antidote to class distinction, or if they did, it did not find its way into their novels. They were quick to show, though, that a class blending could occur that was acceptable to all. In fact, such a theme is clearly prevalent in many sections of both Mansfield Park and Frankenstein. For example, in Frankenstein, Shelly describes the acceptance of a lower class individual into an upper class family. Justine is a lower class servant who is taken into the Frankenstein family to alleviate the dire straits into which she has fallen. However, the Frankenstein's do not view her as a servant in the typical, expected sense. Rather, in a letter to the maniacal, creature-creating

Computers Cause Laziness :: Technology

Looking around at daily life, I noticed a pattern of computer oriented devices that make life easier. While I do agree with faster production and less work, I can not allow this degenerative spiral of laziness to continue, it is out of control. These devices are in most daily activities ranging from waking up to an alarm clock to watching the news before going to bed. All of these computerized facets of our society help to increase our daily productivity and help us do whatever it is we need to accomplish in the day in the easiest way possible. The computer age is upon us and it will continue to grow in influence until society revolves around it daily, without any need for improvement. . In personal computers, the industry has been creating faster machines that can store more information than before. For example, speed, the microprocessor has been tweaked to perform high rates of data transactions. What this means for the average person is that we can be much more productive in a day than the average person 50 years ago. to allow faster hook-up to the Internet, fiber optic lines have been added, to transfer data about 35,714,285 times faster than conventional phone lines (about 28,000 bits per second has been pushed to about 1,000,000,000,000 bits per second). This may seem ridiculous to you but if you stop and think how many lazy people get on-line every day to order movies, pizza, and do there E-bay all from the comfort of home you will see that this is not only ridiculous but scandalous and down right insane. As speed enhances, memory and storage space is needed to hold excess information. â€Å"Double data rate three, synchronous dynamic random access memory† or DDR3 SDRAM is a new, faster memory module that helps transfer RAM data about 80 times faster than normal RAM. For long term storage of large amounts of data, hard drives have been under a constant upgrade of performance, and it is not uncommon to find hard drives about 300 gigabytes to 1 terabyte on the market. One terabyte may not sound like a lot of space to you so to give you an example it’s like having the ability of storing 13 million movies on your computer or 26.7 million songs and its all to keep you fat lazy and dumb. Along with technology, an ease of use factor has been instilled in the modern day PC's so it’s easier for the elderly and the toddlers to use.

Police and Exclusionary Rule Applies

Exclusionary Rule Exclusionary Rule According to â€Å"Legal Information Institute† (n. d. ), â€Å"The Exclusionary Rule prevents the government from using most evidence gathered in violation of the United States Constitution† (Exclusionary Rule). This rule applies to evidence gained from an unreasonable search or seizure in violation of the Fourth Amendment, Fifth Amendment, and the Sixth Amendment.If evidence that falls within the scope of the exclusionary rule led law enforcement to other evidence, which they would not otherwise have located, then the exclusionary rule applies to the related evidence found subsequent to the excluded evidence as well. Such subsequent evidence has taken on the name of â€Å"fruit of the poisonous tree. † The Exclusionary Rule is a court-created remedy and deterrent, not an independent constitutional right. Courts will not apply the rule to exclude illegally gathered evidence where the costs of exclusion outweigh its deterrent o r remedial benefits.Thus, the rule is not triggered when courthouse errors lead police officers to mistakenly believe that they have a valid search warrant, because excluding the evidence would not deter police officers from violating the law in the future Exceptions to the Rule There are exceptions to the Exclusionary Rule and they are listed as, another source is found that is untainted and had a role in finding the evidence. The next is evidence would have been located anyway, regardless of error or bad evidence. The next exception is that evidence may be used for witness removal on cross examination.While exception is that a witness’s identification of the defendant is not excluded if the witness could identify the defendant before arrested. Grand jury proceedings and evidence involved is excluded, and finally state agents that thought that they were complying with the Fourth Amendment. Costs and Benefits Some say that the rational choice model of criminal behavior predic ts that if the Mapp ruling did affect the behavior of police— altering either the probability of conviction or detection then citizens should respond by ncreasing their level of unlawful activity. Since the exclusionary rule increases the costs of police investigations, the police will respond by substituting away from those activities that require a warrant towards those that do not (Rubin, 1998). This train of thought while in 1989 may have been progressive; the thought process was way off. Police have risen to the challenge to get evidence without breaking rights of those involved and properly handling those Amendment rights.Many things have been learned during these times like obtaining a search warrant is worth the work put into it, if a warrant is filed correctly, listing the proper information, and holding the proper property then getting a conviction is a simple thing. Alternatives to the Exclusionary Rule Prosecution of police for trespassing, this can be done if the exclusionary rule did not exist. The prosecutors and the juries would be reluctant to do such. Civil tort action against officers, which can include all negligence cases as well as intentional wrongs which result in harm. Therefore tort law is one of the major areas of law.Administrative discipline by police internal affairs would be rampant if there was no rule to assist them with gathering evidence. There are many alternatives to the Exclusionary Rule but none are going to assist in the criminal justice system, this rule helps to balance everything on both sides of this system. There would be chaos in the courts, bad evidence, civil disputes, and offenders that have their rights violated. Conclusion The Exclusionary Rule was created in the hope to protect citizen’s rights while allowing the criminal justice system to do its job effectively.This rule has taken into consideration what the citizen goes through as well as what the police must do to properly execute their jobs. Exceptions to the rule, allows for accidents to happen, evidence to be gathered and submitted if no malice is detected, this allows the criminal justice system to work and stay balanced. These exceptions were created in the knowledge that the people that work in the criminal justice system are human, while ensuring that the offender has rights and they are protected. In a world without the Exclusionary Rule, civil liberties of both sides on the criminal justice ence will be negatively affected. The citizens could have the police come in and ransack their homes and take evidence without anyone’s consent and the other side leaves the entire criminal justice system open for attack. Keeping the Exclusionary Rule in place will ensure that the criminal justice system will continue to work as it was solely intended too. References Legal Information Institute. (n. d. ). Retrieved from http://www. law. cornell. edu/wex/exclusionary_rule/ Rubin, P. H. (1998). EFFECTS OF CRIMINAL PROCE DURE ON CRIME RATES. Retrieved from http://economics. emory. edu/home/assets/†¦ /rubin_98_03_paper. pdf

Elder Abuse and Living Arrangements in Late Adulthood Essay

Late adulthood is a period of various biological changes which can impact on an individual’s health and ability to function as easily in society. The stereotypical changes of this stage are paler less elastic skin resulting in wrinkles, thinning hair gradually turning from grey to white, weaker bones, muscle loss, and vision and hearing impairments e. g. cataracts and difficulty with word discrimination. There are changes to the brain also, such as the loss of dendrites which causes a reduction in brain weight and volume and slower synaptic speeds resulting in slower reaction times (Bee 1998, p. 53). Their immune system slows down as well, becoming less effective, and making them more prone to illness (Fernandez 2010, p. 794). Alzheimer’s disease is the most common cause of dementia and is a change in the brain structure due to the tangling of dendritic fibres in the brain causing severe memory loss and personality changes (Bee 1998, p. 459). Overall, the elderly are mo re likely to have a chronic illness and disabilities which may impact upon their ability to bathe, walk, feed themselves, prepare meals, shop, dress themselves, and even live independently (Bee 1998, p. 56). This stage of life is characterised by a number of stresses and is a time of reflection. An individual’s changing work status, in particular when they retire, can be a source of stress as work is a major component of adult life and they now have to find other activities to fill their day. There is also the uncertainty of their financial future and whether they will have enough to live comfortably off (Fernandez 2010, pp. 853-855). Their health or partner’s health may be another source of stress for them, especially if it results in a caring role being required to complete everyday tasks; and the knowledge that their life is coming to an end (Fernandez 2010, pp. 867-868). Fernandez (2010, p. 851) states that late adulthood is a â€Å"†¦ time of looking back and taking stock of where we’ve been, what we’ve accomplished, and whom we have touched. † This results in a process called ‘Life Review’ which is gradually looking back at past experiences analysing and evaluating them to develop more secure and complex self concepts (Bee 1998, p. 02). Social interaction is an important part of life, continuing on in late adulthood and is associated with good health and life satisfaction. The elderly have frequent contact with family, finding strong emotional and practical support through them, especially adult children, and tend to have lower levels of institutionalisation with couples and relatives providing a high level of care and assistance to each other (Bee 1998, pp. 484-490). Friendships play an important role in late adulthood, with many enjoying time with friends more than with family (Fernandez 2010, p. 43). They provide companionship, intimacy, acceptance, opportunities for laughter, sharing of activities, links to a larger community, and protection from the psychological consequences of loss (Berk 1998, p. 609). In late adulthood where and with whom individuals are going to live is an issue they face. There are a number of options available to the elderly such as mobile homes, age segregated villages/communities, institutions, with family, or in their own home (Kalish 1975, pp. 97-99). Deciding which option is the most suitable for an individual can be influenced by a variety of things, such as health, disability, socio-economic status (SES) and culture. Mobile homes such as caravans suit those looking for a low cost and informal arrangement, however, those that have a mobility affecting disability or very poor health may not be suited to this option as they are usually small and on outskirts of towns (Kalish 1975, p. 98). Age segregated villages/communities include retirement homes that provide independent living arrangements or some support depending on the individual’s needs (Johnson 1960, p. 7). They tend to be in semi-isolated areas (making it hard for those with serious health issues to access medical attention), and are quite expensive (only those of high SES tend to be able to afford them) (Kalish 1975, pp. 98-99). The most common institution for the elderly is a nursing home, which cares for those who need considerable attention due to severe physic al or mental disabilities (approximately 5% of the aged population) (Kalish 1975, p. 99). Some residents are unable to feed, dress or bathe themselves, are incontinent or unaware of where or even who they are (Kalish 1975, p. 9). Medicare subsidises some of the costs, but not enough, meaning some individuals are still unable to cover the costs (Kalish 1975, p. 99). Family members provide the most long term care, whether that is a spouse, partner or adult children (Berk 1998, p. 575). It is more common for an elder of an eastern culture to live with their children and extended family, even if healthy, than for an elder from a western culture. Most individuals, even with a moderate disease or health problem, don’t live with relatives, but in their own house (Bee 1998, pp. 82-483). Living in their own home provides the greatest personal control, but those living alone are often poverty stricken and have unmet needs (Berk 1998, p. 601). This is where the Government and charity or ganisations help; they both provide small homes at low costs in suitable areas, as well as providing services such as home help (cleaning mainly), home visiting, and Meals on Wheels (Johnson 1960, p. 48). Elder abuse is a very real and serious issue that occurs during the late adulthood stage of life. There are many different types of elder abuse, including physical abuse (use of physical force resulting in injury, pain or impairment), sexual (non-consensual sexual contact), emotional/psychological (inflicting anguish, emotional pain or distress), neglect (failure to fulfil obligations or duties to an elder), financial exploitation (improper use of an elder’s funds, property or assets), and medical abuse (failing to provide adequate medical treatment or misusing medications) (Biggs 1995, pp. 6-37). It can also be intentional (conscious and deliberate attempt to inflict harm) or unintentional (inadvertent action resulting in harm, usually due to ignorance, inexperience, lack of desire or inability to provide proper car) (CSAP’s Prevention Pathways 2004). Stereotypically, it is nursing home residents that are more likely to be abused, as they are believed to be â€Å"vegetables†, and Kalish (1975, p. 9) states that health care professionals sometimes describe fe eding the resident using the expression, â€Å"watering the vegetables† which highlights this view and often leads to elder abuse as a way of degrading the elder and punishing them for needing attention and help. Unfortunately many nursing staff receive little or no in-service training and receive a very poor wage, so they feel out of their depths and do not enjoy the tasks required of them, which increases the risk of elder abuse as they feel frustrated, especially if the elder’s abilities are declining and need more care (Kalish 1975, p. 00). This leads to very few long term facilities providing intellectual or sensory stimulation. The more staff fail to stimulate the residents, the more they have to do for them, and the more the residents sink into despondency, creating more stress and frustration for the carers; becoming a viscous cycle (Kalish 1975, p. 100). The lack of stimulation itself, could be a form of unintentional neglect, as their intellectual needs are n ot being met. Despite the stereotypical view of nursing homes, it is in fact those who live in their own homes or with family who are abused the most, and it is the family that are usually the abusers, especially sons (Biggs 1995, p. 41). Victims of psychological or physical abuse tend to be physically well but have emotional problems while the abusers tend to have issues with alcohol and/or mental illness and live with the victim and are usually dependent on them (Biggs 1995, p. 43). Victims of neglect are usually very old and mentally or physically impaired with very little social support, and the abuser suffers chronic and continuing stress (Biggs 1995, p. 43). Those who are unmarried with limited support are at more risk of being financial exploited, with the abuser having financial problems or dependent on the victim for finances and accommodation (Biggs 1995, p. 43). In 1993 the Commonwealth Government established the Working Party on the Protection of Frail Older People in the Community to protect the rights of residents in nursing homes (Biggs 1995, p. 53). Interestingly, mandatory reporting legislation that America has was rejected by most states in Australia at first and it wasn’t until July 2007 that compulsory reporting of unlawful sexual contact or unreasonable use of force was brought in, but this still doesn’t cover all elder abuse and only applies to residents of an Australian Government subsidised aged care facility (Aged Rights Advocacy Service 2012). Erik Erikson was a German psychoanalyst who developed an eight stage psychosocial development theory; this essay will focus on his last stage, ego integrity versus despair (Fernandez 2010, p. 21). The basic concept of this stage is the question ‘Was my life meaningful? ’ and involves looking back on one’s life to determine this. The hope is that the individual will come to terms with and accept who they are and have been, the choices they have made, and the opportunities they have gained and lost, and their impending death and thus achieve the vi rtue of wisdom (Bee 1998, p. 501). If they don’t come to terms with their life they develop despair, where they feel dissatisfied with their life and feel it is too late to change it (Berk 1998, p. 88). For example, someone who has very poor health and is reliant on others to help care for them may feel like a burden and have a sense of hopelessness resulting in them continuing to live alone as they do not wish to put others out. While someone else may view it as they’ve lived a long healthy life up until now and they have a loving family who is willing to help them in their old age, leaving them with a sense of fulfilment and satisfaction, and will happily move in with relatives. Another example might be living in a retirement home, some elderly may come to resent the age segregation and feel like society has pushed them to the outskirts to die, while others may feel stronger social connections, higher morale and a general higher life satisfaction due to the close proximity of others of similar age. Erikson’s theory is valuable in providing a guideline by which to understand this stage, but is it as clear cut as having integrity or despairing? Maxine Walaskay classified elderly into one of four categories, integrity achieved (aware of their ageing and accept the life lived); despairing (negative evaluation of life); foreclosed (content with their current life but resist self exploration); and dissonant (just beginning to evaluate their life) (Bee 1998, p. 501). Walaskay’s classification seems to say that not all individuals in this life stage look back on their life and evaluate it, that those in the foreclosed category base it on where their life is at now, so it would seem that Erikson’s theory does not apply to everyone in this life stage. Stress as a transaction theory looks at a stimulus only becoming a stressor when it is perceived that way by the individual, and whether they believe they have the resources to cope. In terms of elder abuse it would focus on the increasing dependency of the elder and a burden of care giving as the cause of stress thus increasing the risk of abuse (CSAP’s Prevention Pathways 2004). It proposes that there are factors influencing the risk of elder abuse in terms of elder related (physical or emotional dependency, poor health, impaired mental status and a ‘difficult’ personality), structural related (emotional strain, social isolation and environmental problems) and carer related factors (life crisis and burn out or exhaustion) (Biggs 1995, p. 25). For example an institutionalised resident’s dementia worsens making them more reliant on the carer, leading to more stress as the carer may not feel they have the capabilities to handle increased roles and this may cause them to abuse the resident. Another example could be an only child suffering extreme financial distress due to gambling debts, who lives with their mentally impaired mother and feels they cannot pay their own debs so they fraudulently use their mother’s funds. This theory looks at the relationship between the dependency of the elder and the stress this creates resulting in abusive behaviour, which research has been unable to prove (Biggs 1995, p. 30). According to this theory, by reducing the level of care giving stress, the likelihood of elder abuse would decrease as well, but this doesn’t take into account other factors that may be attributing to the abuse such as power roles (being physically and mentally more powerful and degrading and abusing the elder as a way to exert and maintain that power), and even a history of violence (if the elder was abusive earlier in their life and the abused becomes their carer, such as a wife or child, then the carer may have learnt that behaviour and carry it on by abusing the elder). There are many biological, psychological and social factors that impact individuals in the late adulthood stage of life, which can contribute to issues they face such as the influence of an individual’s health, ability to function effectively in society and social networks on where and with whom to live and the occurrence of elder abuse. The two theories, Erikson’s ego integrity versus despair and the stress as a transaction theory help provide some guidelines to examine the issues of living arrangements and elder abuse faced by individuals in this stage of life. Reference List Aged Rights Advocacy Service 2012, Mandatory Reporting: Elder Abuse and the Law, Aged Rights Advocacy Service Inc. , accessed 23 September 2012, <http://www. sa. agedrights. asn. au/residential_care/preventing_elder_abuse/elder_abuse_and_the_law/mandatory_reporting> Bee, H 1998, Lifespan Development, 2nd edn, Longman, Sydney Berk, L 1998, Development through the Lifespan, Allyn & Bacon, Needham Heights Biggs, S, Kingston, P & Phillipson, C 1995, Elder Abuse in Perspective, Open University Press, Buckingham CSAP’s Prevention Pathways: Online Courses 2004, Out of the Shadows: Uncovering substance use and elder abuse, U. S. Department of Health and Human Services, accessed 23 September 2012, <http://pathwayscourses. samhsa. gov/elab/elab_1_pg1. htm> Fernandez, E 2010, SOCW1003: Human Behaviour 1: Life stress and the life span, McGraw Hill, North Ryde Johnson, E 1960, ‘Social Provisions for the Aged: With special reference to accommodation, clubs and foster homes’, in A Stoller (ed), Growing Old: Problems of Old Age in the Australian Community, Halstead Press, Sydney pp. 46-53 Kalish, R 1975, Late Adulthood: Perspectives on Human Development, Brooks/Cole Publishing Company, California